Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.) and Curcumin

Background
The rhizome (root) of turmeric ( Curcuma longa Linn.) has long been used in traditional Asian medicine to treat gastrointestinal upset, arthritic pain, and "low energy." Laboratory and animal research has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer properties of turmeric and its constituent curcumin. Preliminary human evidence, albeit poor quality, suggests possible efficacy in the management of dyspepsia (heartburn), hyperlipidemia (high cholesterol), and scabies (when used on the skin).

Synonyms
Amomoum curcuma, anlatone (constituent), CUR, Curcuma , Curcuma aromatica , Curcuma aromatica salisbury, Curcuma domestica , Curcuma domestica valet, Curcuma longa , Curcuma longa rhizoma, Curcuma oil, curcumin, curcumin (I, II, III), diferuloylmethane, E zhu, Gelbwurzel, gurkemeje, Haldi, Haridra, Indian saffron, Indian yellow root, Jiang huang, kunir, kunyit, Kurkumawurzelstock, Kyoo, Olena, radix zedoaria longa, rhizome de curcuma, safran des Indes, shati, turmeric oil, turmeric root, tumerone, Ukon, yellowroot, Zedoary, Zingiberaceae (family), zingiberene, Zitterwurzel.

Evidence
These uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider.

Cancer
Several early animal and laboratory studies report anti-cancer (colon, skin, breast) properties of curcumin. Many mechanisms have been considered, including antioxidant activity, anti-angiogenesis (prevention of new blood vessel growth), and direct effects on cancer cells. Currently it remains unclear if turmeric or curcumin has a role in preventing or treating human cancers. There are several ongoing studies in this area. Grade C

Dyspepsia (heartburn)
Turmeric has been traditionally used to treat stomach problems (such as indigestion from a fatty meal). There is preliminary evidence that turmeric may offer some relief from these stomach problems. However, at high doses or with prolonged use, turmeric may actually irritate or upset the stomach. Reliable human research is necessary before a recommendation can be made. Grade C

Gallstone prevention/bile flow stimulant
It has been said that there are fewer people with gallstones in India, which is sometimes credited to turmeric in the diet. Early studies report that curcumin, a chemical in turmeric, may decrease the occurrence of gallstones. However, reliable human studies are lacking in this area. The use of turmeric may be inadvisable in patients with active gallstones. Grade C

High cholesterol
Early studies suggest that turmeric may lower levels of low-density lipoprotein ("bad cholesterol") and total cholesterol in the blood. Better human studies are needed before a recommendation can be made. Grade C

HIV
Several laboratory studies suggest that curcumin, a component of turmeric, may have activity against HIV. However, reliable human studies are lacking in this area. Grade C

Inflammation
Laboratory and animal studies show anti-inflammatory activity of turmeric and its constituent curcumin. Reliable human research is lacking. Grade C

Osteoarthritis
Turmeric has been used historically to treat rheumatic conditions. Laboratory and animal studies show anti-inflammatory activity of turmeric and its constituent curcumin, which may be beneficial in people with osteoarthritis. Reliable human research is lacking. Grade C

Peptic ulcer disease (stomach ulcer)
Turmeric has been used historically to treat stomach and duodenal ulcers. However, at high doses or with prolonged use, turmeric may actually further irritate or upset the stomach. Currently, there is not enough human evidence to make a firm recommendation. Grade C

Rheumatoid arthritis
Turmeric has been used historically to treat rheumatic conditions, and based on animal research may reduce inflammation. Reliable human studies are necessary before a recommendation can be made in this area. Grade C
Scabies
Historically, turmeric has been used on the skin to treat chronic skin ulcers and scabies. It has also been used in combination with the leaves of the herb Azadirachta indica ADR or "neem." More research is necessary before a firm recommendation can be made. Grade C

Uveitis (eye inflammation)
Laboratory and animal studies show anti-inflammatory activity of turmeric and its constituent curcumin. A poorly designed human study suggests a possible benefit of curcumin in the treatment of uveitis. Reliable human research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn. Grade C

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common functional disorder for which there is no reliable medical treatment. One study investigated the effects of Curcuma xanthorriza on IBS and found that treatment did not show any therapeutic benefit over placebo. More studies are needed to verify these findings. Grade C

*Key to grades
A: Strong scientific evidence for this use;
B: Good scientific evidence for this use;
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use;
D: Fair scientific evidence against this use;
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use.

Modern use of honey

Medicinal uses and health effects of honey
The main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, as a spread on breads, and as an addition to various beverages such as tea and as a sweetener in commercial beverages such as Sprecher's root beer. Honey is the main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage mead, which is also known as "honey wine" or "honey beer" (although it is neither wine nor beer). It is also used as an adjunct in beer.For at least 2700 years, honey has been used to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, but only recently have the antiseptic and antibacterial properties of honey been chemically explained. Wound Gels that contain antibacterial honey and have regulatory approval for wound care are now available to help conventional medicine in the battle against drug resistant strains of bacteria MRSA. As an antimicrobial agent honey may have the potential for treating a variety of ailments. One New Zealand researcher says a particular type of honey may be useful in treating MRSA infections. Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water activity causing osmosis, hydrogen peroxide effect, and high acidity. Honey may also be used to alleviate the effects of a sore throat. It is mixed with lemon juice and consumed. The mixture coats the throat alleviating discomfort, and the antibacterial, antiseptic properties are good for the throat as well.

Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharides. This mixture has a low water activity; most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth.

Hydrogen peroxide in honey is activated by dilution. However, unlike medical hydrogen peroxide, commonly 3% by volume, it is present in a concentration of only 1 mmol/l in honey. Iron in honey oxidizes the oxygen free radicals released by the hydrogen peroxide.

C6H12O6 + H2O + O2 → C6H12O7 + H2O2

When used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an
antiseptic.

In diabetic ulcers
Topical honey has been used successfully in a comprehensive treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use other topical antibiotics.
The pH of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5. This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria.

Nutraceutical effects
Antioxidants in honey have even been implicated in reducing the damage done to the colon in colitis. Such claims are consistent with its use in many traditions of folk medicine.

Other medical applications
Some studies suggest that the topical use of honey may reduce odors, swelling, and scarring when used to treat wounds; it may also prevent the dressing from sticking to the healing wound. Honey has also been used as a treatment for sore throats and coughs for centuries and according to recent research may in fact be more effective than most common medicines. Honey (especially when combined with lemon) is often taken orally by pharyngitis and laryngitis sufferers, in order to soothe them. Though widely believed to alleviate allergies, local honey has been shown to be no more effective than placebos in controlled studies

Precautions
Due to the natural presence of botulinum endospores in honey, children under one year of age should not be given honey. The more developed digestive systems of older children and adults generally destroy the spores. Infants, however, can contract botulism from honey.
Honey produced from the flowers of rhododendrons, mountain laurels, sheep laurel and azaleas may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. Honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources generally dilutes any toxins.

Toxic honey may also result when bees are in close proximity to tutu bushes (Coriaria arborea) and the vine hopper insect (Scolypopa australis). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin into honey . Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and the Marlborough Sound) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma and violent convulsions. In order to reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand.

Coconut Oil DIET

Coconut Oil: A-Healthy Choice for the Thyroid
Coconut oil, on the other hand, is a saturated fat made up primarily of medium chain fatty acids. Also known as medium chain triglycerides (MCTs), medium chain fatty acids are known to increase metabolism and promote weight loss. Coconut oil can also raise basal body temperatures while increasing metabolism. This is good news for people who suffer with low thyroid function.

I began taking coconut oil to address a hypothyroid issue. Recently, especially over the last month, thyroid activity plunged and my temperatures would top out for the day somewhere between 97.2 and 97.8. Definitely hypothyroid territory. Now in just a couple of days the coconut oil has boosted my metabolism back toward the normal range (still subnormal but getting there)..Mike (Coconut Diet Forums)

Coconut Oil and Oxidative Stress
One of the reasons the long chain fatty acids in vegetable oils are so damaging to the thyroid is that they oxidize quickly and become rancid. Food manufacturers know about this propensity towards rancidity and, therefore, highly refine their vegetable oils. Considerable research has shown that trans fatty acids, present when vegetable oils are highly refined (hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated), are especially damaging to cell tissue and can have a negative affect on the thyroid as well as health in general. Because the longer chain fatty acids are deposited in cells more often as rancid and oxidizing fat, impairment of the conversion of thyroid hormone T4 to T3 occurs, which is symptomatic of hypothyroidism. To create the enzymes needed to convert fats to energy, T4 must be converted to T3.
Dr. Ray Peat says:
When the oils are stored in our tissues, they are much warmer, and more directly exposed to oxygen than they would be in the seeds, and so their tendency to oxidize is very great. These oxidative processes can damage enzymes and other parts of cells, and especially their ability to produce energy. The enzymes which break down proteins are inhibited by unsaturated fats; these enzymes are needed not only for digestion, but also for production of thyroid hormones, clot removal, immunity, and the general adaptability of cells. The risks of abnormal blood clotting, inflammation, immune deficiency, shock, aging, obesity, and cancer are increased. Thyroid [hormones] and progesterone are decreased.

Since the unsaturated oils block protein digestion in the stomach, we can be malnourished even while "eating well." There are many changes in hormones caused by unsaturated fats. Their best understood effect is their interference with the function of the thyroid gland. Unsaturated oils block thyroid hormone secretion, its movement in the circulatory system, and the response of tissues to the hormone. Coconut oil is unique in its ability to prevent weight-gain or cure obesity, by stimulating metabolism. It is quickly metabolized, and functions in some ways as an antioxidant.
Because coconut oil is saturated and very stable (unrefined coconut oil has a shelf life of about three to five years at room temperature), the body is not burdened with oxidative stress as it is with the vegetable oils. Coconut oil does not require the enzyme stress that vegetable oils do, preventing T4 to T3 hormone conversion, not only because it is a stable oil, but also because it is processed differently in the body and does not need to be broken down by enzyme dependent processes as do long chain fatty acids. Also, since the liver is the main place where damage occurs from oxidized and rancid oils that cause cell membrane damage, and since the liver is where much of the conversion of T4 to T3 takes place, eliminating long chain fatty acids from the diet and replacing them with medium chain fatty acids found in coconut oil can, in time, help in rebuilding cell membranes and increasing enzyme production that will assist in promoting the conversion of T4 to T3 hormone
From Banahaw Health Products Corp.

Biological functions of Cysteine

The cysteine thiol group is nucleophilic and easily oxidized. The reactivity is enhanced when the thiol ionized, and cysteine residues in proteins have pKa values close to neutrality, so are often in their reactive thiolate form in the cell. Because of its high reactivity, the thiol group of cysteine has numerous biological functions.

Precursor to the antioxidant glutathione
Due to the ability of thiols to undergo redox reactions, cysteine has antioxidant properties. Cysteine's antioxidant properties are typically expressed in the tripeptide glutathione, which occurs in humans as well as other organisms. The systemic availability of oral glutathione (GSH) is negligible; so it must be biosynthesized from its constituent amino acids, cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid. Glutamic acid and glycine are readily available in most Western diets, but the availability of cysteine can be the limiting substrate.

Oxidation to cystine linkages
Oxidation of cysteine produces the disulfide cystine. More aggressive oxidants convert cysteine to the corresponding sulfinic acid and sulfonic acid. Cysteine residues play a valuable role by crosslinking proteins, which increases the protein stability in the harsh extracellular environment, and also functions to confer proteolytic resistance (since protein export is a costly process, minimizing its necessity is advantageous). Inside the cell, disulfide bridges between cysteine residues within a polypeptide support the protein's secondary structure. Insulin is an example of a protein with cystine crosslinking, wherein two separate peptide chains are connected by a pair of disulfide bonds.

Protein Disulfide Isomerases catalyze the proper formation of disulfide bonds; the cell transfers dehydroascorbic acid to the endoplasmic reticulum, which oxidises the environment. In this environment, cysteines are, in general, oxidized to cystine and no longer functions as a nucleophile.

Precursor to iron-sulfur clusters
Cysteine is an important source of sulfide in human metabolism. The sulfide in iron-sulfur clusters and in nitrogenase is extracted from cysteine, which is converted to alanine in the process.

Metal ion binding
Beyond the iron-sulfur proteins, many other metal cofactors in enzymes are bound to the thiolate substituent of cysteinyl residues. Examples include zinc in zinc fingers and alcohol dehydrogenase, copper in the blue copper proteins, iron in cytochrome P450, and nickel in the [NiFe]-hydrogenases. The thiol group also has a high affinity for heavy metals, so that proteins containing cysteine will bind metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium tightly.
Post-translational modifications

Aside from its oxidation to cystine, cysteine participates in numerous Posttranslational modifications. The nucleophilic thiol group allows cysteine to conjugate to other groups, e.g., in prenylation. Ubiquitin ligases transfer ubiquitin to its pendant, proteins, and caspases, which engage in proteolysis in the apoptotic cycle. Inteins often function with the help of a catalytic cysteine. These roles are typically limited to the intracellular milieu, where the environment is reducing, and cysteine is not oxidized to cystine.

Applications
Cysteine, mainly the L-enantiomer, is a precursor in the food, pharmaceutical, and personal care industries. One of the largest applications is the production of flavors. For example, the reaction of cysteine with sugars in a Maillard reaction yields meat flavors. L-cysteine is also used as a processing aid for baking. Small quantities (in the tens of ppm range) help to soften the dough and thus reduce processing

In the field of personal care, cysteine is used for permanent wave applications predominantly in Asia. Again the cysteine is used for breaking up the disulfide bonds in the hair's keratin.
Cysteine is a very popular target for site-directed labeling experiments to investigate biomolecular structure and dynamics. Maleimides will selectively attach to cysteine using a covalent Michael addition. Site-directed spin labeling for EPR or paramagnetic relaxation enhanced NMR also uses cysteine extensively.

In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, cysteine is one of the 599 additives to cigarettes. Like most cigarette additives, however, its use or purpose is unknown. Its inclusion in cigarettes could offer two benefits: Acting as an expectorant, since smoking increases mucus production in the lungs; and increasing the beneficial antioxidant glutathione (which is diminished in smokers).
From : Wikipedia

Albendazole (Albenza) for Acylostoma Infection

Albendazole (Albenza) -- FDA approved but considered investigational to treat hookworms; inhibits microtubule polymerization by binding to cytoplasmic b-tubulin; by affecting intestinal cells of parasite, prevents use of nutrients by parasite, essentially starving it to death.Dosage shown is selectively toxic to parasites because binding to parasite b-tubulin occurs at a much lower concentration than binding to mammalian protein.Because drug acts locally on worms within GI tract, action is not dictated by systemic drug concentration.In children, albendazole appears superior to mebendazole for curing hookworm infestations (cure rates of ~90% for Ancylostoma and 75% for Necator using albendazole)

Adult Dose
For classic hookworm disease and eosinophilic enteritis: 400 mg PO onceFor cutaneous larva migrans: 400 mg PO qd for 3 d

Pediatric Dose
<6>6 years: Administer as in adults

Contraindications
Documented hypersensitivity

Interactions
Coadministration with carbamazepine may decrease efficacy; dexamethasone, cimetidine, and praziquantel may increase toxicity

Pregnancy
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established

Precautions
Information based on use to treat patients with hydatid disease and neurocysticercosis, for which the drug is used for prolonged periods (8-30 d for neurocysticercosis and 3 mo for hydatid disease); embryotoxic and teratogenic in pregnant rats and rabbits; no adequate studies in pregnant women, but no deleterious effects were recorded among 10 cases of women who were exposed accidentally to high doses of albendazole for systemic infection during first trimester and followed to term; excreted in animal milk; whether excreted in human milk unknownPatients with abnormal liver function tests (LFTs) should be carefully evaluated before commencing therapy because drug metabolized in liver and associated with hepatotoxicity; most common adverse effect is reversible increase in serum aminotransferases (16%); abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, dizziness, and headache occasionally occur (just above 1%); causes reversible reductions in total WBC count in <1% of patients

Anoa

Conservation status Endangered



Genus Bubalus Species B. quarlesi, B. depressicornis

Binomial name : Bubalus quarlesi(Ouwens, 1910)

Anoa are a subgenus of buffalo comprising two species native to Indonesia: the Mountain Anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) and the Lowland Anoa (Bubalus depressicornis). Both live in undisturbed forest, and are essentially miniature Water Buffalo, are similar in appearance to a deer, weighing 150–300 kg (330–660 lb. Lives in deep rain forests.

Both are found on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia; the Mountain Anoa is also found on the nearby island of Butung. They apparently live singly or in pairs, rather than herds, except when the cows are about to give birth. One young is born per year.

Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s and the population continues to decrease. It is believed unlikely that there are more than 5000 animals of each species remaining. Reasons for the decline of the anoa include hunting for hide, horns and meat by the local peoples (though they were rarely hunted in their native range before the introduction of modern firearms); and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, hunting is the more serious factor in most areas.

Mountain Anoa are also known as Anoa de Montana, Anoa de Quarle, Anoa des Montagnes, Anoa Pegunungan, and Quarle's Anoa. Lowland Anoa are also known as Anoa de Ilanura or Anoa des Plaines. They are also called sapiutan (or sapi utan).


Lowland Anoa stand but little over a yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is most closely allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes.

White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo.

References
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Black Mamba

Black mambas is dangerous and feared snakes in africa. They have average size being between 2.4 to 3 metres (7.8 - 9.8 foot). According to some reports they may grow on exception to 4.5 metres (14.7 feet). Black mambas belong to the genus, Dendroaspis. Nothing is truer when you are standing in front of big black mamba hissing loudly, mouth gaping, striking rapidly in your direction. But are all the frightening stories about black mambas true? I don’t think so. On the African continent many myths are told about these wonderful creatures. Stories abound about black mambas chasing people for miles, attacking when they notice you and visiting houses to kill every single person inside. All are exaggerations. Black mambas are not as fierce as people describe them. In captivity black mambas are docile and appreciative animals that show a fantastic and active behaviour when housed in a big enclosure the right way.Black mambas that reach this size are obviously rare and verifiable data is actually hard to track down.

The name "black mamba" is somewhat confusing as this animal is not black at all. The common name is given to the snake because the mouth is inky black on the inside. Most mambas have a dark olive, olive green, greyish brown or metal grey colour. Some of them will show a light banding around their body. Slightly speckled mambas are also not uncommon. Juvenile black mambas are light grey or olive in colour but will darken when older.
Black mambas are widespread over the African continent and occur from Somalia to South Africa. In the past black mambas were recognized in 2 subspecies: Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis and Dendroaspis polylepis antinorii. But research proved antinorii was an invalid subspecies. Venom research has shown us however, that there can be differences in venom composition in black mambas from different localities.

Black mambas are diurnal snakes that hunt prey actively. They live in a permanent lair which they will use for a long time if not disturbed, and also seem to have permanent basking spots which they will return to daily. Black mambas often live in termite mounds and hollow trees, but even when they are not supposed to be arboreal, they can sometimes be found in trees. Typically, when black mambas sense danger, they will slide away to the nearest hiding place, and are capable of doing this at 20 km/h, which makes the black mamba one of the fastest snakes in the world. Black mambas feed mainly on warm-blooded prey such as rodents, ground squirrels, hyraxes and other small mammals. Birds are occasionally taken. Black mambas’ eating reptiles and other snakes is quite rare and there is little documentation to substantiate it.

Black mambas usually bite their prey once or twice and then allow it go off to die before attempting to eat. They may however, bite and hold when eating birds. Their venom is very potent and is mainly based on neurotoxins that are absorbed quickly by the prey. The venom will cause a blockade at the neuromuscular junction which blocks every signal from the brain passing through the nervous system to the muscles which causes systemic paralysis. The prey will die from suffocation due to paralysis of the muscles of respiration.

Even though venom composition varies in black mambas from different localities, there is a good polyvalent antivenom produced by SAIMR (South African Institute of Medical Research) that effectively covers them all. Bites from black mambas to humans are rare, but are seriously life threatening when they occur. A good first aid treatment rapidly enacted is very important. We apply a pressure immobilization bandage as described by Prof. Struan Sutherland. During transport to the hospital, respiratory support for the bitten patient is very important. This can be either mouth to mouth, mouth to mask, or a bag-valve-mask device used by medical personnel. With good pre-hospital first aid and in-hospital antivenom treatment, 99% of victims survive without any complications. Reversal of symptoms is generally quite rapid with early antivenom administration.

Tiger

Kingdom: Animalia; Class : Mammalia; Order : Carniovra; Family : Felidae; Genus : Panthera; Species : Panthera tigris

Binomial name Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758

Synonyms :
Felis tigris Linnaeus, 1758; Tigris striatus Severtzov, 1858; Tigris regalis Gray, 1867

Conservation status Endangered

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is a mammal of the Felidae family, the largest of four "big cats" in the Panthera genus. Native to much of eastern and southern Asia, the tiger is an apex predator and an obligate carnivore. Reaching up to 4 metres (13 feet) in total length and weighing up to 300 kilograms (660 pounds), tigers are comparable in size to the biggest extinct felids. Aside from their great bulk and power, their most recognizable feature is the pattern of dark vertical stripes that overlays near-white to reddish-orange fur, with lighter underparts.

Highly adaptable, tigers range from the Siberian taiga to open grasslands to tropical mangrove swamps. They are territorial and generally solitary animals, often requiring large contiguous areas of habitat that support their prey demands. This, coupled with the fact that they are endemic to some of the more densely populated places on earth, has caused significant conflicts with humans. Of the nine subspecies of modern tiger, three are extinct and the remaining are classified as endangered, some critically so. The primary direct causes are habitat destruction and fragmentation and hunting. Their historical range, which once reached from Mesopotamia and the Caucasus through most of South and East Asia, has been radically reduced. While all surviving species are under formal protection, poaching, habitat destruction and inbreeding depression continue to be threats.

Habitat
Tigers are found in a variety of habitats, including both tropical and evergreen forests, woodlands, grasslands, rocky country, swamps, and savannas. The Caspian tiger was also found in steppes and mountainous areas. Compared to the lion, the tiger prefers more dense vegetation, for which its camouflage is ideally suited, and where a single predator is not at a disadvantage compared to a pride. Among the big cats, only the tiger and jaguar are strong swimmers; tigers are often found bathing in ponds, lakes, and rivers.


Range
In the historical past tigers were widespread in Asia, from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to Siberia and Indonesia. During the 19th century the striped cats completely vanished from entire western Asia and became restricted in the remaining parts of its range almost exclusively to isolated pockets. This fragmented relic range extends from India in the west to China and Southeast Asia in the east today. The northern limit is close to the Amur River in south eastern Siberia. The only large Island inhabited today is Sumatra. From Java it obviously disappeared in second half of the 19th century and from Borneo it is known only from fossil remains.
Taxonomy and evolution
The oldest remains of a tiger-like cat, called Panthera palaeosinensis have been found in China and Java. This species occurred about 2 million years ago at the beginning of the pleistocene and was smaller than a tiger. Early true tiger fossils stem from Java and are between 1.6 and 1.8 million years old. Distinct fossils from the early and middle Pleistocene were discovered in deposits from China, Sumatra and Java. A subspecies called Trinil tiger (Panthera tigris trinilensis) occurred about 1.2 million years ago and was found at the locality of Trinil, Java, Indonesia.In India, and northern Asia the tiger appears for the first time in the late pleistocene. Fossil tigers were also found in eastern Beringia (but not on the American Continent) and Sakhalin island. Tiger fossils of the late Pleistocene have also turned up in Japan. These fossils indicate that the Japanese tiger was not bigger than the island subspecies of tigers of recent ages. This may be due to the phenomenon in which body size is related to environmental space (see insular dwarfism), or in the case of a large predator like a tiger, availability of prey. Until the Holocene tigers occurred also in Borneo, where it is not present today.

Ascaridia galli

Ascaridia galli is a nematode parasite that causes ascariasis, or worm infection, in poultry.

The eggs of A. galli have thick, albuminous shells that are resistant to desiccation and persist for a long time in the environment. Larvae do not hatch but moult inside the eggs until they reach the L3 stage. This can take about two weeks but the period depends on other factors such as the weather condition. The infective eggs are ingested by a chicken where it reaches the proventriculus and hatches. Temperature, carbon dioxide levels and pH are thought to be triggering factors that signal the larva to hatch from its egg. The larva then burrows into the mucosal lining of the small intestine where it undergoes two additional moults. It is this phase of their life cycle where these worms causes the most damage to their host. They then re-enter the small intestine and develop into adults where they live their lives out feeding on gut content and making a vast amount of eggs that would then be excreted by a host and free to continue their life cycle. If the animal is able to mount an immune respond to the larvae, i.e. from pre-exposure, the larvae do not develop into adults but hide in the mucosa of the small intestine. This is common for infection of older birds. Transport hosts such as earthworms are thought to play a role in transmission of A. galli and hence, free range birds tend to have a higher risk of infection.

References
1. Helminthiasis: Introduction. The Merck Veterinary Manual (2006). Retrieved on 2007-07-01.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Various Usage of Coccaine.

Chewed/eaten

Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the mouth between gum and cheek (much in the same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Ingesting coca leaves generally is an inefficient means of administering cocaine. Advocates of the consumption of the coca leaf state that coca leaf consumption should not be criminalized as it is not actual cocaine, and consequently it is not properly the illicit drug. Because cocaine is hydrolyzed and rendered inactive in the acidic stomach, it is not readily absorbed when ingested alone. Only when mixed with a highly alkaline substance (such as lime) can it be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach. The efficiency of absorption of orally administered cocaine is limited by two additional factors. First, the drug is partly catabolized by the liver. Second, capillaries in the mouth and esophagus constrict after contact with the drug, reducing the surface area over which the drug can be absorbed. Nevertheless, cocaine metabolites can be detected in the urine of subjects that have sipped even one cup of coca leaf infusion. Therefore, this is an actual additional form of administration of cocaine, albeit an inefficient one.
Orally administered cocaine takes approximately 30 minutes to enter the bloodstream. Typically, only a third of an oral dose is absorbed, although absorption has been shown to reach 60% in controlled settings. Given the slow rate of absorption, maximum physiological and psychotropic effects are attained approximately 60 minutes after cocaine is administered by ingestion. While the onset of these effects is slow, the effects are sustained for approximately 60 minutes after their peak is attained.Contrary to popular belief, both ingestion and insufflation result in approximately the same proportion of the drug being absorbed: 30 to 60%. Compared to ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes, however, a more realistic activation period is closer to 5 to 10 minutes, which is similar to ingestion of cocaine. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40 - 60 minutes after the peak effects are attained.
Insufflation
Insufflation is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine in the Western world. Cocaine is not inhaled using this method. The drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the sinuses. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60%, with higher doses leading to increased absorption efficiency. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in mucus and swallowed (this "drip" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is because cocaine highly constricts blood vessels – and therefore blood and oxygen/nutrient flow – to that area.
Injected
Drug injection provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest amount of time. Upon injection, cocaine reaches the brain in a matter of seconds, and the exhilarating rush that follows can be so intense that it induces some users to vomit uncontrollably. In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all injected illicit substances, there is a risk of the user contracting blood-borne infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used.
Smoked
Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from "Love roses," small glass tubes with a paper rose that are promoted as romantic gifts. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters". A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring pad – often called a "brillo" (actual Brillo pads contain soap, and are not used), or "chore", named for Chore Boy brand copper scouring pads, – serves as a reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and boiled to vapor. In a pinch, crack smokers sometimes smoke though a soda can with small holes in the bottom instead of a crack pipe. Also, the bottoms of small glass liquor bottles can be removed, and the bottles neck can then be stuffed with chore to use as a makeshift crack pipe.Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects, felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long – usually five to fifteen minutes. In a study performed on crack cocaine users, the average time taken for them to reach their peak subjective "high" was 1.4 minutes.
Coca leaf infusions
Coca herbal infusion (also referred to as Coca tea) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world. The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of Peru and Bolivia for many years as a drink having medicinal powers. Visitors to the city of Cuzco in Peru, and La Paz in Bolivia are greeted with the offering of coca leaf infusions (prepared in tea pots with whole coca leaves) purportedly to help the newly-arrived traveler overcome the malaise of high altitude sickness. The effects of drinking coca tea are a mild stimulation and mood lift. It does not produce any significant numbing of the mouth nor does it give a rush like snorting cocaine. In order to prevent the demonization of this product, its promoters publicize the unproven concept that much of the effect of the ingestion of coca leaf infusion would come from the secondary alkaloids, as being not only quantitatively different from pure cocaine but also qualitatively different.
The cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine can be detected in the urine of people a few hours after drinking one cup of coca leaf infusion.

Oral
Cocaine has been used medically and informally as an oral anesthetic. Many users rub the powder along the gum line, or onto a cigarette filter which is then smoked, which numbs the gums and teeth - hence the colloquial names of "numbies", "gummies" or "cocoa puffs" for this type of administration. This is mostly done with the small amounts of cocaine remaining on a surface after insufflation. Another oral method is to wrap up some cocaine in rolling paper and swallow it. This is sometimes called a "snow bomb."

Aerobic Respiration

When oxygen is present (aerobic conditions), most organisms will undergo two more steps, Kreb's Cycle, and Electron Transport, to produce their ATP. In eukaryotes, these processes occur in the mitochondria, while in prokaryotes they occur in the cytoplasm.

Overview of the cellular respiration processes. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (http://www.sinauer.com/) and

Euthanasia

Representing action terminate the life of somebody or being live other;dissimilar conducted by a people or side in charge ( medical energy or doctor) because patient request or a[n effort lighten the patient grief by doctor.

Therefore euthanasia must be done just because request of patient or family with the consideration prevent the patient grief.

In general there are 4 kinds of euthanasia :
1. Liability Euthanasia
Representing effort terminate the somebody life by abstracting appliance of life supporter supporting patient life, for example by abstracting appliance breathe or discontinuing medication do not try hence appliance of heart conduct and also let the patient pass away
2. Active Euthanasia
All action of mangakhiri of patient life of through direct action according to pertinent patient request
3. Voluntary Pasive euthanasia
Doctor only give the drug dose which enough kill or gas of carbon monoxide to later patient wittingly full (of) terminating its own life
4. Involuntary Euthanasia
Action terminate the somebody life which is non representing willingness from patient [is] in some cases categorized [by] murder

In various cleft of world of policy euthanasia have invited the controversy by kinds of reaction. Have a lot of pooling try to show how far the way of this agreed or accepted.

Some among other things are :
United States Agree 57% Adverse opinion 35%
Canada Agree 75% Adverse opinion 25%
English Agree 80% Adverse opinion 20%
Australian Agree 81% Adverse opinion 19%
Dutch Agree 92% Adverse opinion 8%

Ascription which enough mengemuka on the part of opposing [is] terminate the ill to somebody life just because show how not existence of appreciation to life as God grant from above. That Matter [is] also supported [by] a religion norm which also oppose the mentioned and also care of this way weared for the bad purpose appreciation.

But if somebody which [shall] have no longger of life activity capable to be conducted [by] its own body and [is] only reckoned on [by] a appliance existence and cause the lose heart patient live and also family experience of the heavy mind burden hence some party very supporting [of] that step with the real consideration [of] that lat-alt life supporter have colonized the freedom live the patient and basically that patient have died medically.
Become in fact until whenever euthanasia will remain become the controversy and delivered [at] your assessment each because each and everyone will look into [it] from the aspect of look into and their way of thinking each. Appropriately we are as animate being created [by] God need not to need and feel have been able to replace the God power. Medium for the man who look into the [the] mentioned from facet but return all depend on your op

Toxoplasmosis Classification & External Resources

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite infects most warm-blooded animals, including humans, but the primary host is the felid (cat) family. Animals are infected by eating infected meat, by ingestion of faeces of a cat that has itself recently been infected, or by transmission from mother to fetus. Cats have been shown as a major reservoir of this infection.

Up to one third of the world's population is estimated to carry a Toxoplasma infection.The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that overall seroprevalence in the United States as determined with specimens collected by the third National Health and Nutritional Assessment Survey (NHANES III) between 1988 and 1994 was found to be 22.5%, with seroprevalence among women of childbearing age (15 to 44 years) of 15%.People with a weakened immune system, such as those infected with HIV, and fetuses, may become seriously ill, and it can occasionally be fatal. The parasite can cause encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and neurologic diseases and can affect the heart, liver, and eyes (chorioretinitis).

The protozoan was first discovered by Nicolle & Manceaux, who in 1908 isolated it from the African rodent Ctenodactylus gundi, then in 1909 differentiated the disease from Leishmania and named it Toxoplasmosis gondii. The first recorded congenital case was not until 1923, and the first adult case not until 1940. In 1948, a serological dye test was created by Sabin & Feldman, which is now the standard basis for diagnostic tests.

Transmission
Ingestion of raw or partly cooked meat, especially pork, lamb, or venison containing Toxoplasma cysts. Infection prevalence in countries where undercooked meat is traditionally eaten, such as France, has been related to this transmission method. Oocysts may also be ingested during hand-to-mouth contact after handling undercooked meat, or from using knives, utensils, or cutting boards contaminated by raw meat. Ingestion of contaminated cat faeces. This can occur through hand-to-mouth contact following gardening, cleaning a cat's litter box, contact with children's sandpits, or touching anything that has come into contact with cat faeces.
Drinking water contaminated with Toxoplasma.

Transplacental infection in utero.
Receiving an infected organ transplant or blood transfusion, although this is extremely rare.
The cyst form of the parasite is extremely hardy, capable of surviving exposure to freezing down to −12 degrees Celsius (10 degrees Fahrenheit), moderate temperatures and chemical disinfectants such as bleach, and can survive in the environment for over a year. It is, however, susceptible to high temperatures—above 66 degrees Celsius (150 degrees Fahrenheit), and is thus killed by thorough cooking, and would be killed by 24 hours in a typical domestic freezer.
Cats excrete the pathogen in their faeces for a number of weeks after contracting the disease, generally by eating an infected rodent. Even then, cat faeces are not generally contagious for the first day or two after excretion, after which the cyst 'ripens' and becomes potentially pathogenic. Studies have shown that only about 2% of cats are shedding oocysts at any one time, and that oocyst shedding does not recur even after repeated exposure to the parasite. Although the pathogen has been detected on the fur of cats, it has not been found in an infectious form, and direct infection from handling cats is generally believed to be very rare.

Pregnancy precautions
Congenital toxoplasmosis is a special form in which an unborn child is infected via the placenta. A positive antibody titer indicates previous exposure and immunity and largely ensures the unborn baby's safety. A simple blood draw at the first pre-natal doctor visit can determine whether or not the woman has had previous exposure and therefore whether or not she is at risk. If a woman receives her first exposure to toxoplasmosis while pregnant, the baby is at particular risk. A woman with no previous exposure should avoid handling raw meat, exposure to cat feces, and gardening (cat feces are common in garden soil). Most cats are not actively shedding oocysts and so are not a danger, but the risk may be reduced further by having the litterbox emptied daily (oocysts require longer than a single day to become infective), and by having someone else empty the litterbox. However, while risks can be minimized, they cannot be eliminated. For pregnant women with negative antibody titer, indicating no previous exposure to T. gondii, as frequent as monthly serology testing is advisable as treatment during pregnancy for those women exposed to T. gondii for the first time decreases dramatically the risk of passing the parasite to the fetus.

Treatment is very important for recently infected pregnant women, to prevent infection of the fetus. Since a baby's immune system does not develop fully for the first year of life, and the resilient cysts that form throughout the body are very difficult to eradicate with anti-protozoans, an infection can be very serious in the young.

Transplacental transmission:(a) infection in 1st trimester - incidence of transplacental infection is low (15%) but disease in neonate is most severe. (b) infection in 3rd trimester - incidence of transplacental infection is high (65%) but infant is usually asymptomatic at birth.

Infection has two stages:
Acute
During acute toxoplasmosis, symptoms are often influenza-like: swollen lymph nodes, or muscle aches and pains that last for a month or more. Rarely, a patient with a fully functioning immune system may develop eye damage from toxoplasmosis. Young children and immunocompromised patients, such as those with HIV/AIDS, those taking certain types of chemotherapy, or those who have recently received an organ transplant, may develop severe toxoplasmosis. This can cause damage to the brain or the eyes. Only a small percentage of infected newborn babies have serious eye or brain damage at birth.
Latent
Most patients who become infected with Toxoplasma gondii and develop toxoplasmosis do not know it. In most immunocompetent patients, the infection enters a latent phase, during which only bradyzoites are present, forming cysts in nervous and muscle tissue. Most infants who are infected while in the womb have no symptoms at birth but may develop symptoms later in life.

Treatment
Treatment is often only recommended for people with serious health problems, because the disease is most serious when one's immune system is weak.
Medications that are prescribed for acute Toxoplasmosis are:
Pyrimethamine — an antimalarial medication.
Sulfadiazine — an antibiotic used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis.
Clindamycin — an antibiotic. This is used most often for people with HIV/AIDS.
Spiramycin — another antibiotic. This is used most often for pregnant women to prevent the infection of their child.
(Other antibiotics such as minocycline have seen some use as a salvage therapy).
In people with latent toxoplasmosis, the cysts are immune to these treatments, as the antibiotics do not reach the bradyzoites in sufficient concentration.
Medications that are prescribed for latent Toxoplasmosis are:
Atovaquone — an antibiotic that has been used to kill Toxoplasma cysts in situ in AIDS patients.
Clindamycin — an antibiotic which, in combination with atovaquone, seemed to optimally kill cysts in mice.
However, in latent infections successful treatment is not guaranteed, and some subspecies exhibit resistance.

The parasite itself can cause various effects on the host body, some of which are not fully understood.
The evidence for behavioral effects on humans is relatively weak. There have been no randomized clinical trials studying the effects of toxoplasma on human behavior. Although some researchers have found potentially important associations with toxoplasma, it is possible that these associations merely reflect factors that predispose certain types of people to infection (e.g., people who exhibit risk-taking behaviors may be more likely to take the risk of eating undercooked meat).

Two risk factors for contracting toxoplasmosis are:

Infants born to mothers who became infected with Toxoplasma for the first time during or just before pregnancy. Persons with severely weakened immune systems, such as those with AIDS. Illness may result from an acute Toxoplasma infection or reactivation of an infection that occurred earlier in